Kitabı oxu: «On English Homophones»

ENGLISH HOMOPHONES

Definition of homophone.

When two or more words different in origin and signification are pronounced alike, whether they are alike or not in their spelling, they are said to be homophonous, or homophones of each other. Such words if spoken without context are of ambiguous signification. Homophone is strictly a relative term, but it is convenient to use it absolutely, and to call any word of this kind a homophone.¹

Homophony is between words as significant sounds, but it is needful to state that homophonous words must be different words, else we should include a whole class of words which are not true homophones. Such words as draft, train, board, have each of them separate meanings as various and distinct as some true homophones; for instance, a draught of air, the miraculous draught of fishes, the draught of a ship, the draft of a picture, or a draught of medicine, or the present draft of this essay, though it may ultimately appear medicinal, are, some of them, quite as distinct objects or notions as, for instance, vane and vein are: but the ambiguity of draft, however spelt, is due to its being the name of anything that is drawn; and since there are many ways of drawing things, and different things are drawn in different ways, the same word has come to carry very discrepant significations.

Though such words as these² are often inconveniently and even distressingly ambiguous, they are not homophones, and are therefore excluded from my list: they exhibit different meanings of one word, not the same sound of different words: they are of necessity present, I suppose, in all languages, and corresponding words in independent languages will often develop exactly corresponding varieties of meaning. But since the ultimate origin and derivation of a word is sometimes uncertain, the scientific distinction cannot be strictly enforced.

False homophones.

Now, wherever the same derivation of any two same-sounding words is at all doubtful, such words are practically homophones:—and again in cases where the derivation is certainly the same, yet, if the ultimate meanings have so diverged that we cannot easily resolve them into one idea, as we always can draft, these also may be practically reckoned as homophones.

Continent, adjective and substantive, is an example of absolute divergence of meaning, inherited from the Latin; but as they are different parts of speech, I allow their plea of identical derivation and exclude them from my list. On the other hand, the substantive beam is an example of such a false homophone as I include. Beam may signify a balk of timber, or a ray of light. Milton's address to light begins

O first created beam

and Chaucer has

As thikke as motes in the sonne-beam,

and this is the commonest use of the word in poetry, and probably in literature: Shelley has

 
Then the bright child the plumèd seraph came
And fixed its blue and beaming eyes on mine.
 

But in Tyndal's gospel we read

Why seest thou a mote in thy brother's eye and perceivest not

the beam that is in thine own eye?

The word beam is especially awkward here,³ because the beam that is proper to the eye is not the kind of beam which is intended. The absurdity is not excused by our familiarity, which Shakespeare submitted to, though he omits the incriminating eye:

 
You found his mote; the king your mote did see,
But I a beam do find in each of three.
 

And yet just before he had written

 
So sweet a kiss the golden sun gives not
To those fresh morning drops upon the rose,
As thy eye-beams when their fresh rays have smote
The night of dew that on my cheeks down flows.
 

Let alone the complication that mote is also a homophone, and that outside Gulliver's travels one might as little expect to find a house-beam as a castle-moat in a man's eye, the confusion of beam is indefensible, and the example will serve three purposes: first to show how different significations of the same word may make practical homophones, secondly the radical mischief of all homophones, and thirdly our insensibility towards an absurdity which is familiar: but the absurdity is no less where we are accustomed to it than where it is unfamiliar and shocks us.

Tolerance due to habit.

And we are so accustomed to homophones in English that they do not much offend us; we do not imagine their non-existence, and most people are probably unaware of their inconvenience. It might seem that to be perpetually burdened by an inconvenience must be the surest way of realizing it, but through habituation our practice is no doubt full of unconscious devices for avoiding these ambiguities: moreover, inconveniences to which we are born are very lightly taken: many persons have grown up to manhood blind of one eye without being aware of their disability; and others who have no sense of smell or who cannot hear high sounds do not miss the sense that they lack; and so I think it may be with us and our homophones.

But since if all words were alike in sound there would be no spoken language, the differentiation of the sound of words is of the essence of speech, and it follows that the more homophones there are in any language, the more faulty is that language as a scientific and convenient vehicle of speech. This will be illustrated in due course: the actual condition of English with respect to homophones must be understood and appreciated before the nature of their growth and the possible means of their mitigation will seem practical questions.

Great number.

The first essential, then, is to know the extent and nature of the mischief; and this can only be accomplished by setting out the homophones in a table before the eye. The list below is taken from a 'pronouncing dictionary' which professes not to deal with obsolete words, and it gives over 800 ambiguous sounds; so that, since these must be at least doublets, and many of them are triplets or quadruplets, we must have something between 1,600 and 2,000 words of ambiguous meaning in our ordinary vocabulary.⁴

Now it is variously estimated that 3,000 to 5,000 words is about the limit of an average educated man's talking vocabulary, and since the 1,600 are, the most of them, words which such a speaker will use (the reader can judge for himself) it follows that he has a foolishly imperfect and clumsy instrument.

As to what proportion 1,700 (say) may be to the full vocabulary of the language—it is difficult to estimate this because the dictionaries vary so much. The word homophone is not recognized by Johnson or by Richardson: Johnson under homo- has six derivatives of Herbert Spencer's favourite word homogeneous, but beside these only four other words with this Greek affix. Richardson's dictionary has an even smaller number of such entries. Jones has 11 entries of homo-, and these of only five words, but the Oxford dictionary, besides 50 words noted and quoted beginning with homo-, has 64 others with special articles.

Dr. Richard Morris estimated the number of words in an English dictionary as 100,000: Jones has 38,000 words, exclusive of proper names, and I am told that the Oxford dictionary will have over 300,000. Its 114 homo- words will show how this huge number is partly supplied.

Before the reader plunges into the list, I should wish to fortify his spirit against premature despair by telling him that in my tedious searching of the dictionary for these words I was myself cheered to find how many words there were which are not homophones.

LIST OF HOMOPHONES

This list, the object of which is to make the reader easily acquainted with the actual defect of the language in this particular, does not pretend to be complete or scientific; and in the identification of doubtful words the clue was dictated by brevity. s., v., and adj. mean substantive, verb, and adjective. The sections were made to aid the conspectus.

The main indictment is contained in sections i, ii, and iii. These three sections contain 505 entries, involving some 1,075 words.

The homophones in the other sections, iv, v, vi, vii, viii and ix, are generally of such a kind that they would not of themselves constitute a very peculiar case against the English language; but their addition to the main list does very much strengthen the case. One intention in isolating them from the main list was to prevent their contaminating it with their weaker quality; but their separate classification crosses and sometimes overrides that more general distinction. Section iv has some literary interest; vi is inconsistent; the other sections are more or less scientific. These six sections contain some 330 entries involving about 700 words, so that the total of words involved is about 1,775.

The order in this section is that of the phonetic alphabet.

I. THE MAIN LIST OF HOMOPHONES

arc, ark.

arm (limb), arm (weapon).

alms, arms.

aunt, ant, arn't.

arch (s.), arch (adj.).

eye, ay, I.

idol, idle, idyll.

aisle, isle, I'll.

eyelet, islet.

our, hour.

bark (dog), bark (tree), bark (boat).

balm, barm.

bite, bight.

buy, by, bye.

bough, bow, bow (of ship).

bound (leap), bound (limit), bound (fr. bind).

bank (ground), bank (money).

barren, baron.

barrow (hill), barrow (wheel-b.).

bat (club), bat (vespertilio).

batter (s.), batter (v.).

buck (various roots and senses).

bustle (hurry), bustle (dress).

but, butt (tub), butt (v.).

bale (ill), bale (pack), bail (bis).

base, bass.

bate, bait.

beck (and nod), beck (a brook).

bell, belle.

bury, berry.

bear (s.), bare (adj.), bear, bare (v.).

berth, birth.

bee, be.

beat, beet.

beetle (insect), beetle (hammer).

beach, beech.

bier, beer.

blow (a stroke), blow (of wind).

bow, beau.

bogy, bogie.

bole, bowl.

bolt (a weapon), bolt (sift), bolt (run).

bore (perforate), bore (tidal), bore (fr. bear), boar.

board, bawd, bored.

ball, bawl.

born, borne.

boy, buoy.

boil (s.), boil (v.).

box (tree), box (receptacle), box (v.).

bridal, bridle.

bray (of donkey), bray (to pound), brae.

break, brake (fern), brake (of carriages, bis).

braze (to solder), braze (to brazen), braise (to stew), braes.

breach, breech.

breeze (the wind), breeze (a fly), breeze (cinders).

broach, brooch.

hue, hew.

die (v.), dye, die (cast).

down (dune), down (fluff), down (adv.).

doubt, dout.

dam (mother), dam (obstruct), damn.

duck (bird), duck (dear), duck (stuff), duck (v.).

dun (colour), dun (importune), done.

date (fruit), date (datum).

dean, dene.

deer, dear.

desert, dessert.

due, dew.

doe, dough.

dock (plant), dock (basin), dock (shear).

drill (sow), drill (bore), drill (training).

drupe, droop.

jar (vase), jar (discord).

jamb, jam.

jet (mineral), jet (squirt).

gin (drink), gin (snare), jinn.

there, their.

the, thee.

eh! aye (ever).

ale, ail.

eight, ait or eyot, ate (fr. eat).

egg, egg (to incite).

elder (tree), elder (senior).

air, heir, ere, e'er.

airship, heirship.

aery, airy.

earn, urn, erne (eagle).

alight (adj.), alight (v.).

ascent, assent.

foul, fowl.

fallow (untilled), fallow (colour).

fane, feign, fain.

faint, feint.

fast (eccl.), fast (adj. various).

fate, fête.

fell (fierce), fell (skin), fell (hill), fell (fr. fall).

fellow, felloe.

ferule, ferrule.

fair, fare [doublet], phare.

fir, fur.

feet, feat (s.), feat (adj. obs.).

filter, philtre.

fit (befit), fit (conflict), fytte [obs.].

flag (v.), flag (ensign), flag (plant), flag (-stone).

flee, flea.

flow, floe.

flock (herd), flock (of wool).

flue (chimney), flue (velu), flew (fr. fly).

fluke (fish), fluke (of anchor), fluke (slang word).

fold (wrap), fold (of sheep), foaled.

four, fore, for.

forego, forgo, and other compounds.

fourth, forth.

foil (s.), foil (v.), foil (fencer's).

fray (ravel), fray (combat).

fret (eat away), fret (adorn), fret (on lute).

freeze, frieze (archt.), frieze (cloth), frees (fr. free).

gamble, gambol,

gum (resin), gum (teeth).

gage, gauge,

gate, gait.

gird (encircle), gird (revile).

guild, gild.

guilt, gilt.

glare, glair (white of egg), + glary, glairy.

gore (pierce), gore (triangle), gore (blood).

groin, groyne (breakwater).

great, grate (s.), grate (v.).

heart, hart.

high, hie.

hide (v.), hide (skin), hied.

hack (hew), hack (hackney).

hamper (impede), hamper (hanaper).

hail! hail (snow), hale (adj.), hale (haul).

helm (of ship), helm (helmet).

hair, hare.

heel, heal, he'll.

here, hear.

hymn, him.

hole, whole, + holy, wholly, holey.

home, holm.

hoar, whore, haw.

hoard, horde,

hawk (bird), hawk (v. of hawker), hawk (hoquet).

hall, haul.

halt (v.), halt (adj.).

horse, hoarse.

hock (of horse), hock (wine).

hop (jump), hop (plant).

hue, hew.

humorous, humerus.

even (s.), even (adj.).

ear, ear (plough), ear (of corn).

yoke, yolk.

yew, ewe, you.

ure, ewer, your.

card (s.), card (v.).

cask, casque.

cast, caste.

cart, carte, quart (cards and fencing).

count (s.), count (v.).

counter (opp.), counter (of shop), counter (in games), &c.

couch (coucher), couch (grass).

caddy (lad), caddy (box).

can (s.), can (v.).

cannon, canon bis.

currant, current.

curry (food), curry (comb).

colonel, kernel.

cape (dress), cape (headland).

caper (skip), caper (plant).

case (event), case (receptacle).

cashier (s.), cashier (v.).

key, quay.

keen (adj.), keen (v.).

cue, queue.

climb, clime.

cleek, clique.

coal, cole.

cope (v.), cope (s.).

coat, cote.

core, corps, caw.

cork, caulk.

call, caul.

corn (grain), corn (horny growth).

course, coarse, corse.

cobble (to patch), cobble (boat), cobble (-stones).

cock (s. and v.), cock (of hay).

cockle (v.), cockle (s. var.).

creak, creek.

cricket (insect), cricket (game).

cruel, crewel.

cruise, cruse, crews.

coombe (valley), coom (dry measure).

choir, quire (of paper).

quiver (v.), quiver (s.).

queen, quean [obs.].

last (adj., verb), last (s.)

lye (s.), lie (v.), lie (s. and n.).

lyre, liar.

lichen, liken.

light (s.), light (not heavy), and hence lighten, lighten.

lack, lac, lakh.

lap (lick up), lap (fold), lap (knees).

lay (s., bis), lay (v.).

lake (pond), lake (colour).

let (allow), let (lease, v.), let (hinder, obs.).

lee, lea.

leaf, lief.

league (s.), league (v. and s.)

leak, leek.

lean (v.), lean (adj.).

leech (sucker and doctor), leech (of sail).

leave (quit), leave (permit).

limp (adj.), limp (v.).

link (chain), link (torch), also golf-links,

list (listen), list (heel over), list (of flannel).

liver (organ), liver (who lives).

lo! low (adj.), low (of cow's voice).

load, lode, lowed,

lone, loan.

lock (of door), lock (of hair), loch.

long (adj.), long (v.).

lorn, lawn,

lute, loot.

mast (of ship), mast (beech-m.).

march (step), march (boundary), March (month).

mine (s.), mine (poss. pron.).

mite, might (s.), might (v.), [and adj. -y].

mitre (headdress), mitre (carpentry, &c.).

mass (quantity), mass (office).

match (equal), match (mèche).

muff (dress), muff (a stupid).

may (month), may (maid, obs.), may (v.).

male, mail (coat of), mail (post).

mane, main.

mace (staff), mace (spice).

maze, maize, Mays (pl. of month).

mare, mayor.

meed, mead (meadow), mead (drink).

mean (intend), mean (intermediate), mean (poor), mien (countenance).

meet, meat, mete (adj. and v.).

mere (pool), mere (adj.).

mint (herb), mint (coining).

miss (fail), Miss.

mew (cage), mew (bird), mew (of cat).

mute (adj.), mute (of birds).

muse (think), Muse, mews (stable), mews (fr. mew).

mote, moat.

mow (various senses), mot (French).

mole (animal), mole (of skin), mole (breakwater).

mould (to model), mould (earth), mould (rust).

maul (disfigure), Mall (place), mahl (-stick).

morn, mourn, and morning.

moor (country), Moor (race)

night, knight.

none, nun.

need, knead, knee'd.

neat (s.), neat (adj.).

no, know.

not, knot.

oar, ore, or, o'er, awe.

augur, auger.

all, awl, orle (heraldry).

altar, alter.

oral, aural.

ought (zero), ought (pp. of owe), ort [obs.].

par, pas (faus).

pie (pica), pie (dish).

pale (pole), pale (pallid), pail.

pile (heap), pile (stake), pile (hair).

pine (v.), pine (tree).

pound (weight), pound (enclosure), pound (to bruise).

pounce (v.), pounce (=pumice).

pallet, palette, palate.

paten, patten, pattern.

pulse (beat), pulse (pease).

punch (strike), punch (drink), Punch (and Judy).

page (of bk.), page (boy).

pane, pain.

peck (measure), peck (v.).

pelt (to throw), pelt (skin).

pen (writing), pen (inclose).

pair, pear, pare.

pearl, purl (flow), purl (knitting).

pique, peak.

peal, peel.

peep (to look), peep (chirp).

piece, peace.

peach (fruit), peach (impeach).

peer (to look), peer (s.), pier.

pill (ball), pill (to pillage).

pink (a flower), pink (a colour), pink (to pierce).

pip (a seed), pip (a disease), pip (on cards).

pitch (s.), pitch (to fall, &c.).

plight (pledge), plight or plite (to plait), and 'sad plight'.

plat (of ground), plait.

plum, plumb.

plump (adj.), plump (to fall heavily).

plane (tree), plain [both various].

plot (of ground), plot (stratagem), + verbs.

pole, poll.

poach, (eggs), poach (steal game).

pore (of skin), pore (top. over), paw.

potter (v.), potter (s.).

pall (v.), pall (cloak), pawl (mechanics).

pry (inquisitive), pry (to prise open).

prise, prize.

pray, prey.

prune (fruit), prune (s.).

rye, wry.

rime, rhyme.

right, write, wright, rite.

rabbit, rabbet (carpentry).

rack [various], wrack.

racket, racquet.

rally (assemble), rally (=raillery).

rank (s.), rank (rancid).

rap, wrap.

rash (s.), rash (adj.).

ruff, rough.

rum (queer), rum (drink), rhumb (naut.).

rung (s.), and past pp. rung, wrung.

rush (s.), rush (v.).

rape (seed), rape (ravish), rape (divn. of county, obs.).

race (family), race (root), race (that is run).

rate (proportion), rate (to chide).

rut (furrow), rut (of animals).

rake (tool), rake (a prodigal), rake (of a ship).

rail (fence), rail (bird).

rain, reign, rein.

raise, raze.

reck, wreck.

rent (paymt.), rent (s., tear), rent (fr. rend).

rest (repose), rest (remainder), wrest.

reed, read.

reef (of rocks), reef (of sails).

reek, wreak.

reel (highland-), reel (cotton-).

reach, retch.

reave, reeve (naut.), reeve (bailiff, obs.).

rifle (ransack), rifle (s.v., groove).

rear (raise), rear (arrière).

rig (of ship), rig (prank, riggish), rig (-s of barley).

rick (of corn), rick wrick (strain).

ring, wring.

repair (mend), repair (resort, v.).

row (oaring), row (s. of things in line), roe (of fish), roe (fem. deer).

roll [various], rôle.

rock (stone), rock (v.), roc.

rocket (plant), rocket (firework).

rue (plant), rue (v. of ruth).

rude (adj.), rood (s.), rued (fr. rue).

room, rheum.

root, route.

rout, route (military).

sign, sine (trigonom.).

site, sight, cite.

size (magnitude), size (glue).

sough, sow.

sound (noise), sound (to fathom), sound (adj.), sound (strait of sea), sound (fish bladder).

sack (bag), sack (to plunder), sack (wine).

swallow (a willow), sallow (pale colour).

sap (of trees), sap (mine).

sum, some.

sun, son + sunny, sonnie.

sage (plant), sage (adj.).

sale, sail.

sell, cell.

sense, cense.

censual, sensual.

surge, serge.

surf, serf.

scent, cent, sent (fr. send).

session, cession.

sea, see.

seed, cede.

seal (animal), ciel or ceil, seal (sign).

seam, seem.

sear, sere, cere, seer.

serial, cereal.

signet, cygnet.

cist (box), cyst (tumour, Gr.).

scar (of wound), scar (a rock).

skull, scull.

scale (shell), scale (of balance), scale (of stairs).

scald (burn), skald (poet, Norse).

scrub (of shrubs), scrub (v.).

sledge (vehicle), sledge (-hammer).

slight, sleight.

slay, sleigh (sledge).

slate (s.), slate (v., abuse).

sloe, slow.

slop (puddle), slop (loose garment).

slot (track), slot (bar).

sole (adj.), soul, sole (a fish).

sow, sew.

saw (tool), soar, sore, saw (maxim), saw (fr. see).

soil (ground), soil (defile), soil (v., of horses).

spar (beam), spar (mineral), spar (to box).

salter (who salts), psalter.

source, sauce.

spell (incantation), spell (letters), spell (turn of work).

spill (upset), spill (match).

spit (v.), spit (roasting), spit (of land).

spray (drizzle), spray (= sprig).

spruce (tree), spruce (adj.)

style, stile.

stud (nail), stud (of horses).

stake (post), steak, stake (deposit).

step, steppe.

stair, stare.

stern (adj.), stern (of ship).

steal, steel, stele.

steep (adj.), steep (v.).

steer (direct), steer (young ox).

still (tranquil), still (distil).

stalk (stem), stalk (v.), stork.

story, storey.

strand (shore), strand (fibre).

strain (v. and s.), strain (a breed).

strait (narrow), straight (upright).

stroke (a blow), stroke (fondle).

stoup, stoop.

shed (scatter), shed (shelter).

tart (adj.), tart (a pie).

tyre (of wheel), tire (fatigue), tire (attire), + tier (who ties).

time, thyme.

tap (to strike), tap (short pipe).

tale, tail, tail (estate in t.).

tender (adj.), tender (s., attender).

tent (pavilion), tent (plug of lint, s. and v.), tent (wine).

tare, tear (v.).

teem, team.

tear (eye), tier.

tick (bedding), tick (sheep), tick (clock), tic (spasm), tick (credit).

till (cash drawer), till (until).

tilt (v., to make aslant), tilt (tourney), tilt (of caravan).

tip (top), tip (make to slant), tip (a gift).

toe, tow (hemp), tow (draw a boat).

two, too, to.

toll (lax), toll (of bells).

taut, taught, tort.

toil (labour), toil (a snare).

top (summit), top (a toy).

truck (vehicle), truck (naut.), truck (barter).

trump (trumpet), trump (at cards).

trunk (box), trunk (of tree), trunk (of elephant).

tray, trait.

trace (track), trace (strap).

chair, chare.

chap (crack), chap (chapman), chap (cheek).

char (burn), char (fish), char (-woman).

chop (with hatchet), chop (and change).

chuck (chick), chuck (strike gently).

chase (hunt), chase (enchase), chase (printer's case), chase (groove).

vice (depravity), vice (clench), vice (deputy).

valley, valet.

van (front of army), van (fan), van (caravan).

vale, vail, veil.

vain, vein, vane.

won, one.

wake (awake), wake (watch), wake (of ship).

wain, wane.

waste, waist.

wait, weight.

wave, waive.

well (good), well (spring).

wee, we.

weak, week.

ween, wean.

war, wore.

would, wood.

II. All the following examples involve wh. > w. ⁵

ware (earthen-), ware (aware), wear, where, were.

way, weigh, whey.

weal (wealth), weal (a swelling), wheel.

weald, wield, wheeled.

while, wile.

whine, wine,

white, wight.

whether, weather.

whither, wither.

whig, wig.

whit, wit.

what, wot.

whet, wet.

whirr, were = wer'.

whin, win.

whist, wist.

which, witch, wych (elm).

III. Group of Homophones caused by loss of trilled R. ⁶

ion, iron.

father, farther.

lava, larva.

halm, harm.

calve, carve.

talk, torque.

daw, door.

flaw, floor.

yaw, yore.

law, lore.

laud, lord.

maw, more,

gnaw, nor.

raw, roar.

shaw, shore.

IV. The name of a species (of animals, plants, &c.) is often a homophone. Where there is only one alternative meaning, this causes so little inconvenience that the following names (being in that condition) have been excluded from List I. ⁷

bleak (fish), bleak (adj.).

dace, dais.

gull (bird), gull (s. and v.).

carp, carp (v.).

cod, cod (husk).

codling, coddling (fr. coddle).

flounder (fish), flounder (v.).

quail (bird), quail (v.).

lark (bird), lark (fun).

ling (fish), ling (heather).

mussel, muscle.

nit, knit.

awk, orc.

oriole, aureole.

pike (fish), pike (weapon).

pout (fish), pout (v.).

perch (fish), perch (alight).

plaice, place.

ray (fish), ray (of light).

rook (bird), rook (v.).

skua, skewer.

skate (fish), skate (on ice).

smelt (fish), smelt (fr. smell).

swift (bird), swift (adj.).

swallow (bird), swallow (throat).

tapir, taper.

tern, turn.

teal (fish), teil (tree).

thrush (bird), thrush (disease).

V. The suffix er added to a root often makes homophones. The following are examples. (And see in List VI.)

byre, buyer (who buys).

butter (s.), butter (who butts).

better (adj.), better (who bets).

border, boarder.

dire, dyer.

founder (v.), founder (who founds).

geyser, gazer.

greater, grater (nutmeg).

canter (pace), canter (who cants).

medlar, meddler.

moulder (v.), moulder (who moulds).

pitcher (vessel), pitcher (who pitches).

pillar, piller.

platter, plaiter.

plumper (adj.), plumper (s.).

sounder (adj.), sounder (who sounds).

cellar, seller, &c.

VI. Words excluded from the main list for various reasons, their homophony being rightly questioned by many speakers

actor, acta (sanctorum).

brute, bruit.

direst, diarist.

descent, dissent.

deviser, divisor.

dual, duel.

goffer, golfer.

carrot, carat.

caudle, caudal.

choler, collar.

compliment, complement.

lumber, lumbar.

lesson, lessen.

literal, littoral.

marshal, martial.

minor, miner.

manor, manner.

medal, meddle.

metal, mettle.

missal, missel (thrush).

orphan, often.

putty, puttee.

pedal, peddle.

police, pelisse.

principal, principle.

profit, prophet.

rigour, rigger.

rancour, ranker.

succour, sucker.

sailor, sailer.

cellar, seller.

censor, censer.

surplus, surplice.

symbol, cymbal.

skip, skep.

tuber, tuba.

whirl, whorl.

wert, wort (herb, obs.).

vial, viol.

verdure, verger (in Jones).

VII. Homophones due only to an inflected form of a word. Comparatives of adjectives, &c

adze, adds.

art (s.), art (v.).

bard, barred.

band, banned.

battels, battles (bis).

baste, based.

baize, bays (bis).

bent, bent (pp. bend).

bean, been.

blue, blew.

bode, bowed.

bold, bowled, bolled (obs.).

bald, bawled.

braid, brayed.

bread, bred.

brood, brewed.

bruise, brews.

depose, dépôts.

divers (adj.), divers (plu.).

dug (teat), dug (fr. dig).

duct, ducked.

dust, dost.

daze, days.

daisies, dazes (both inflected).

doze, does (plu. of doe).

aloud, allowed.

fort, fought.

found (v.), found (fr. find)

phase, fays (pl. of fay).

felt (stuff), felt (fr. feel)

furze, firs, and furs.

feed (s. and v.), fee'd.

flatter (v.), flatter (adj.).

phlox, flocks.

phrase, frays.

guise, guys (plu.).

gaud, gored.

gauze, gores.

guest, guessed.

glose, glows.

ground (s.), ground (fr. grind).

graze, greys.

greaves, grieves.

groan, grown.

grocer, grosser.

hire, higher.

herd, heard.

hist, hissed.

hose, hoes.

hawse (naut.), haws, &c.

eaves, eves.

use (v.), ewes, yews.

candid, candied.

clove (s.), clove (fr. cleave).

clause, claws.

cold, coaled.

courser, coarser.

court, caught.

cause, cores, caws.

coir, coyer (fr. coy).

crew (s.), crew (fr. crow).

quartz, quarts.

lighter (s.), lighter (fr. light, adj.).

lax, lacks, &c.

lapse, laps, &c.

lade (v.), laid.

lane, lain.

lead (mineral), led.

left (adj.), left (fr. leave).

Lent, leant, lent (fr. lend).

least, leased.

lees (of wine), leas, &c.

lynx, links.

mind, mined.

madder (plant), madder (fr. mad).

mustard, mustered.

maid, made.

mist, missed.

mode, mowed.

moan, mown.

new, knew, &c.

nose, knows, noes.

aught (a whit), ought (fr. owe).

pact, packed.

paste, paced.

pervade, purveyed.

pyx, picks.

please, pleas.

pause, paws, pores.

pride, pried [bis].

prize, pries.

praise, prays, preys.

rouse, rows.

rasher (bacon), rasher (fr. rash).

raid, rayed.

red, read (p. of to read).

rex, wrecks, recks.

road, rode, rowed.

rote, wrote.

rove (v. of rover), rove (fr. reeve).

rose, rows (var.), roes (var.), rose (v.).

ruse, rues (fr. rue).

side, sighed.

size, sighs.

scene, seen.

seize, seas, sees.

sold, soled (both inflected).

sword, soared.

sort, sought.

span (length), span (fr. spin).

spoke (of wheel), spoke (fr. speak).

stole (s.), stole (fr. steal).

stove (s.), stove (fr. stave).

tide, tied.

tax, tacks (various).

tact, tacked.

tease, teas, tees.

toad, towed, toed.

told, tolled.

tract, tracked.

trust, trussed.

chaste, chased (various).

choose, chews.

throne, thrown.

through, threw.

wild, wiled.

wind (roll), whined.

wax, whacks.

wade, weighed.

weld, welled.

word, whirred.

wilt (wither), wilt (fr. will).

ward, warred.

wont, won't.

warn, worn.

VIII. 'False homophones' [see p. 4], doubtful doublets, &c

beam, beam (of light).

bit (horse), bit (piece), bit (fr. bite).

brace, brace.

diet, diet.

deck (cover), deck (adorn).

deal (various).

dram (drink), drachm.

drone (insect), drone (sound).

jest, gest (romance, and obs. senses).

jib (sail), jib (of horses).

fine (adj., v. senses), fine (mulct).

flower, flour.

fleet (s.), fleet (adj.), Fleet (stream).

grain (corn), grain (fibre).

indite, indict.

incense (v. =cense), incense (incite).

kind (adj.), kind (s.).

canvas, canvass.

cuff (sleeve), cuff (strife).

cousin, cozen.

cord, chord (music).

coin, coign.

cotton (s.), cotton (v.).

crank (s.), crank (adj.).

quaver (v.), quaver (music).

levy, levee.

litter (brood), litter (straw).

mantle (cloak), mantle (shelf).

mess (confusion), mess (table).

mussel, muscle.

nail (unguis), nail (clavus).

patent (open), patent (monopoly).

pommel (s.), pummel (v.).

refrain (v.), refrain (s., in verse).

retort (reply), retort (chemical vessel).

second (number), second (of time).

squall (v.), squall (a gale).

slab (s.), slab (adj.).

smart (s. and v., sting), smart (adj.).

stave (of barrel), stave (of music), [stave in (v.)].

stick (s.), stick (v.).

stock (stone), stock (in trade), &c.

strut (a support), strut (to walk).

share (division), share (plough).

sheet (sail and clew), sheet (-anchor).

shear (clip), sheer (clear), sheer off (deviate).

tack (various), tack (naut.).

ton, tun.

wage (earnings), wage (of war).

IX. The following words were not admitted into the main class chiefly on account of their unimportance

ah! are.

arse, ass.

ask, aske (newt)

ayah, ire.

bah! bar, baa.

barb, barb (horse).

bask, basque.

barn, barne = bairn.

budge, budge (stuff).

buff, buff.

buffer, buffer.

berg, burgh (suffixes).

bin, bin = been.

broke (v. of broke), broke (fr. break).

broom, brume (fog).

darn, darn.

fizz, phiz.

few, feu.

forty, forte.

hay, heigh!

hem (sew), hem (v., haw).

hollow, hollo (v.).

inn, in.

yawl (boat), yawl (howl).

coup, coo.

lamb, lam (bang).

loaf, loaf (v. laufen).

marry! marry (v.).

nag (pony), nag (to gnaw), knag.

nap (of cloth), nap (sleep).

nay, neigh.

oh! owe.

ode, owed.

oxide, ox-eyed.

pax, packs.

pants, pants (fr. pant).

prose, pros (and cons).

sink (var.), cinque.

swayed, suede (kid).

ternary, turnery.

tea, tee (starting point).

taw (to dress skins), taw (game, marbles), tore (fr. tear).

cheap, cheep.

tool, tulle,

we! woe.

ho! hoe.

The facts of the case being now sufficiently supplied by the above list, I will put my attitude towards those facts in a logical sequence under separate statements, which thus isolated will, if examined one by one, avoid the confusion that their interdependence might otherwise occasion. The sequence is thus:

1. Homophones are a nuisance.

2. They are exceptionally frequent in English.

3. They are self-destructive, and tend to become obsolete.

4. This loss impoverishes the language.

5. This impoverishment is now proceeding owing to the prevalence of the Southern English standard of speech.

6. The mischief is being worsened and propagated by the phoneticians.

7. The Southern English dialect has no claim to exclusive preference.

1. That homophones are a nuisance

An objector who should plead that homophones are not a nuisance might allege the longevity of the Chinese language, composed, I believe, chiefly of homophones distinguished from each other by an accentuation which must be delicate difficult and precarious. I remember that Max Müller [1864] instanced a fictitious sentence

ba bà bâ bá,

'which (he wrote) is said to mean if properly accented The three ladies gave a box on the ear to the favourite of the princess.' This suggests that the bleating of sheep may have a richer significance than we are accustomed to suppose; and it may perhaps illustrate the origin as well as the decay of human speech. The only question that it raises for us is the possibility of distinguishing our own homophones by accentuation or by slight differentiation of vowels; and this may prove to be in some cases the practical solution, but it is not now the point in discussion, for no one will deny that such delicate distinctions are both inconvenient and dangerous, and should only be adopted if forced upon us. I shall assume that common sense and universal experience exonerate me from wasting words on the proof that homophones are mischievous, and I will give my one example in a note⁸; but it is a fit place for some general remarks.

The objections to homophones are of two kinds, either scientific and utilitarian, or æsthetic. The utilitarian objections are manifest, and since confusion of words is not confined to homophones, the practical inconvenience that is sometimes occasioned by slight similarities may properly be alleged to illustrate and enforce the argument. I will give only one example.

Utilitarian objections not confined to homophones.

The telephone, which seems to lower the value of differentiating consonants, has revealed unsuspected likenesses. For instance the ciphers, if written somewhat phonetically as usually pronounced, are thus:

by which it will be seen that the ten names contain eight but only eight different vowels, 0 and 4 having the same vowel aw, while 5 and 9 have ai. Both these pairs caused confusion; the first of them was cured by substituting the name of the letter O for the name of the zero cipher, which happens to be identical with it in form,⁹ and this introduced a ninth vowel sound ou (= owe), but the other pair remained such a constant source of error, that persons who had their house put on the general telephonic system would request the Post Office to give them a number that did not contain a 9 or a 5; and it is pretty certain that had not the system of automatic dialling, which was invented for quite another purpose, got rid of the trouble, one of these two ciphers would have changed its name at the Post Office.

Æsthetic objections.

In the effect of uniformity it may be said that utilitarian and æsthetic considerations are generally at one; and this blank statement must here suffice, for the principle could not be briefly dealt with: but it follows from it that the proper æsthetic objections to homophones are never clearly separable from the scientific. I submit the following considerations. Any one who seriously attempts to write well-sounding English will be aware how delicately sensitive our ear is to the repetition of sounds. He will often have found it necessary to change some unimportant word because its accented vowel recalled and jarred with another which was perhaps as far as two or three lines removed from it: nor does there seem to be any rule for this, since apparently similar repetitions do not always offend, and may even be agreeable. The relation of the sound to the meaning is indefinable, but in homophones it is blatant; for instance the common expression It is well could not be used in a paragraph where the word well (= well-spring) had occurred. Now, this being so, it is very inconvenient to find the omnipresent words no and know excluding each other: and the same is true of sea and see; if you are writing of the sea then the verb to see is forbidden, or at least needs some handling.

I see the deep's untrampled floor

With green and purple seaweeds strewn:

here seaweeds is risky, but I see the sea's untrampled floor would have been impossible: even the familiar

The sea saw that and fled

is almost comical, especially because 'sea saw' has a most compromising joint-tenant in the children's rocking game

See saw Margery daw.

The awkwardness of these English homophones is much increased by the absence of inflection, and I suppose it was the richness of their inflections which made the Greeks so indifferent (apparently) to syllabic recurrences that displease us: moreover, the likeness in sound between their similar syllables was much obscured by a verbal accent which respected the inflection and disregarded the stem, whereas our accent is generally faithful to the root.¹⁰ This sensitiveness to the sound of syllables is of the essence of our best English, and where the effect is most magical in our great poets it is impossible to analyse.

Once become sensible of such beauty, and of the force of sounds, a writer will find himself in trouble with no and know. These omnipresent words are each of them essentially weakened by the existence of the other, while their proximity in a sentence is now damaging. It is a misfortune that our Southern dialect should have parted entirely with all the original differentiation between them; for after the distinctive k of the verb was dropped, the negative still preserved (as it in some dialects still preserves) its broad open vowel, more like law than toe or beau, and unless that be restored I should judge that the verb to know is doomed. The third person singular of its present tense is nose, and its past tense is new, and the whole inconvenience is too radical and perpetual to be received all over the world. We have an occasional escape by using nay for no, since its homophone neigh is an unlikely neighbour; but that can serve only in one limited use of the word, and is no solution.

Punnage.

In talking with friends the common plea that I have heard for homophones is their usefulness to the punster. 'Why! would you have no puns?' I will not answer that question; but there is no fear of our being insufficiently catered for; whatever accidental benefit be derivable from homophones, we shall always command it fully and in excess; look again at the portentous list of them! And since the essential jocularity of a pun (at least when it makes me laugh) lies in a humorous incongruity, its farcical gaiety may be heightened by a queer pronunciation. I cannot pretend to judge a sophisticated taste; but, to give an example, if, as I should urge, the o of the word petrol should be preserved, as it is now universally spoken, not having yet degraded into petr'l, a future squire will not be disqualified from airing his wit to his visitors by saying, as he points to his old stables, 'that is where I store my petrel', and when the joke had been illustrated in Punch, its folly would sufficiently distract the patients in a dentist's waiting-room for years to come, in spite of gentlemen and chauffeurs continuing to say petrol, as they do now; nor would the two petr'ls be more dissimilar than the two mys.

Play on words.

Puns must of course be distinguished from such a play on words as John of Gaunt makes with his own name in Shakespeare's King Richard II.

K. What comfort man? How is't with aged Gaunt?

G. O, how that name befits my composition!

Old Gaunt indeed, and gaunt in being old, &c.

where, as he explains,

Misery makes sport to mock itself.

This is a humorous indulgence of fancy, led on by the associations of a word; a pun is led off by the sound of a word in pursuit of nonsense; though the variety of its ingenuity may refuse so simple a definition.

An indirect advantage of homophones.

It is true that a real good may sometimes come indirectly from a word being a homophone, because its inconvenience in common parlance may help to drive it into a corner where it can be retained for a special signification: and since the special significance of any word is its first merit, and the coinage of new words for special differentiation is difficult and rare, we may rightly welcome any fortuitous means for their provision. Examples of words specialized thus from homophones are brief (a lawyer's brief), hose (water-pipe), bolt (of door), mail (postal), poll (election), &c.¹¹

2. That English is exceptionally burdened with homophones

This is a reckless assertion; it may be that among the languages unknown to me there are some that are as much hampered with homophones as we are. I readily grant that with all our embarrassment of riches, we cannot compete with the Chinese nor pretend to have outbuilt their Babel; but I doubt whether the statement can be questioned if confined to European languages. I must rely on the evidence of my list, and I would here apologize for its incompleteness. After I had patiently extracted it from the dictionary a good many common words that were missing occurred to me now and again, and though I have added these, there must be still many omissions. Nor must it be forgotten that, had obsolete words been included, the total would have been far higher. That must plainly be the case if, as I contend, homophony causes obsolescence, and reference to the list from Shakespeare in my next section will provide examples of such words.

Otto Jespersen¹² seems to think that the inconvenience of homophones is so great that a language will naturally evolve some phonetic habit to guard itself against them, although it would otherwise neglect such distinction. I wish that this admirable instinct were more evident in English. He writes thus of the lists of words which he gives 'to show what pairs of homonyms [homophones] would be created if distinctions were abolished that are now maintained: they [the lists] thus demonstrate the force of resistance opposed to some of the sound-changes which one might imagine as happening in the future. A language can tolerate only a certain number of ambiguities arising from words of the same sound having different significations, and therefore the extent to which a language has utilized some phonetic distinction to keep words apart, has some influence in determining the direction of its sound-changes. In French, and still more in English, it is easy to enumerate long lists of pairs of words differing from each other only by the presence or absence of voice in the last sound; therefore final b and p, d and t, g and k, are kept rigidly apart; in German, on the other hand, there are very few such pairs, and thus nothing counterbalances the natural tendency to unvoice final consonants.'

3. That homophones are self-destructive and tend to become obsolete.

For the contrary contention, namely, that homophones do not destroy themselves, there is prima facie evidence in the long list of survivors, and in the fact that a vast number of words which have not this disadvantage are equally gone out of use.

Causes of obsolescence.

Words fall out of use for other reasons than homophony, therefore one cannot in any one case assume that ambiguity of meaning was the active cause: indeed the mere familiarity of the sound might prolong a word's life; and homophones are themselves frequently made just in this way, for uneducated speakers will more readily adapt a familiar sound to a new meaning (as when my gardener called his Pomeranian dog a Panorama) than take the trouble to observe and preserve the differentiation of a new sound. There is no rule except that any loss of distinction may be a first step towards total loss.¹³

It is probable that the working machinery of an average man's brain sets a practical limit to his convenient workable vocabulary; that is to say, a man who can easily command the spontaneous use of a certain number of words cannot much increase it without effort. If that is so, then, as he learns new words, there will be a tendency, if not a necessity, for him to lose hold of a corresponding number of his old words; and the words that will first drop out will be those with which he had hitherto been uncomfortable; and among those words will be the words of ambiguous meaning.

No direct proof

It is plain that only general considerations can be of value, unless there should be very special evidence in any special case; and thus the caution of Dr. Henry Bradley's remarks in note on page 19.

I remember how I first came to recognize this law; it was from hearing a friend advocating the freer use of certain old words which, though they were called obsolete and are now rarely heard, yet survive in local dialects. I was surprised to find how many of them were unfit for resuscitation because of their homophonic ambiguity, and when I spoke of my discovery to a philological friend, I found that he regarded it as a familiar and unquestioned rule.

But to prove this rule is difficult; and as it is an impossible task to collect all the obsolete words and classify them, I am proposing to take two independent indications; first to separate out the homophones from the other obsolete words in a Shakespearian glossary, and secondly, to put together a few words that seem to be actually going out of use in the present day, that is, strictly obsolescent words caught in the act of flitting.

Obsolescence defined.

Obsolescence in this connexion must be understood only of common educated speech, that is, the average speaker's vocabulary. Obsolescent words are old words which, when heard in talk, will sound literary or unusual: in literature they can seem at home, and will often give freshness without affectation; indeed, any word that has an honourable place in Shakespeare or the Bible can never quite die, and may perhaps some day recover its old vitality.

Evidence of obsolescence.

The best evidence of the obsolescence of any word is that it should still be frequently heard in some proverb or phrase, but never out of it. The homophonic condition is like that of aural and oral, of which it is impossible to make practical use.¹⁴ We speak of an aural surgeon and of oral teaching, but out of such combinations the words have no sense. It happens that oral teaching must be aural on the pupil's side, but that only adds to the confusion.

SUMMARY

When I consented to write this inaugural paper, I knew that my first duty would be to set an example of the attitude which the Society had proposed to take and hopes to maintain.

This Society was called into existence by the widespread interest in linguistic subjects which is growing on the public, and by the lamentable lack of any organized means for focussing opinion. It responds to that interest, and would supply that want.²⁹ There is no doubt that public opinion is altogether at sea in these matters, and its futility is betrayed and encouraged by the amateurish discussions and obiter dicta that are constantly appearing and reappearing in the newspapers. Our belief is that if facts and principles were clearly stated and thoroughly handled by experts, it would then be possible not only to utilize this impulse and gratify a wholesome appetite, but even to attract and organize a consensus of sound opinion which might influence and determine the practice of our best writers and speakers.

The Society absolutely repudiates the assumption of any sort of Academic authority or orthodoxy; it relies merely on statement of fact and free expression of educated opinion to assure the verdict of common sense; and it may illustrate this method to recapitulate the various special questions that have arisen from following it in this particular discussion concerning English homophones.

The main points are of course

(1) The actual condition of the English language with respect to homophones. [This is an example of statement of fact.]

(2) The serious nature of their inconvenience.

(3) The evidence that we are unconsciously increasing them.

(4) The consequent impoverishment of the language.

From these considerations the question must arise

(5) Whether it is not our duty to take steps to prevent the continuance and growth of this evil. [To give an example—the word mourn. If we persist in mispronouncing this word as morn, and make no distinction between mourning and morning, then that word will perish. We cannot afford to lose it: it is a good example of our best words, as may be seen by looking it up in the concordances to Shakespeare and the Bible: and what is true of this word is true of hundreds of others.]

(6) It is pointed out that our fashionable Southern English dialect, our Public School Pronunciation, is one chief source of this damage.

(7) Attention is called to the low standard of pronunciation adopted by our professional phoneticians, and to the falsity of their orthodox teaching.

(8) The damage to the language which is threatened by their activity is exposed.

(9) It is questioned how far it is possible to adopt living dialectal forms to save words that would otherwise perish.

(10) Respect for the traditions of neglected dialects is advocated.

(11) As to what differentiations of words should be insisted on [e.g. the lore = law class].

(12) The necessity of observing vowel distinctions in unaccented syllables, [e.g. Every one now pronounces the o in the new word petrol, and yet almost every one thinks it impossible to pronounce the o in the old word symbol; which is absurd.]

(13) The necessity for better phonetic teaching in our schools.

(14) The quality of the new words introduced into the language; and the distinction between mere scientific labels, and those names of common new objects which must be constantly spoken.

(15) The claims of the Southern English dialect to general acceptance is questioned.

(16) The general consideration that the spread of the English language over the world must accelerate the disuse and loss of the most inconvenient homophones.

These matters invite expert discussion, and it is our hope that every such question will receive due treatment from some one whose knowledge qualifies him to handle it; and that when any principle or detail is definitely recognized as desirable, then the consensus of good writers and speakers will adopt it. This implies wide recognition, support, and co-operation; and though the Society has already gone far to secure this, it may yet seem that the small aristocracy of letters will be insufficient to carry through such a wide reform of habit: but it should be remembered that they are the very same persons whose example maintains the existing fashions. And, again, when it is urged against us that the democratic Press is too firmly established in its traditions to be moved by such an influence, it is overlooked that the great majority of those who write for the Press, and maintain or even create the style by which it holds the public ear, are men of good education, whose minds are thoroughly susceptible to all intellectual notions, and often highly sensitive to æsthetic excellence. They are all of them in a sense trained experts, and though working under tyrannous conditions are no less alive in pride and self respect than those who command more leisure, and they will readily and eagerly follow where their circumstances might forbid them to lead. The conviction too that they are honourably assisting in preserving the best traditions of our language will add zest to their work; while the peculiar field of it will provide a wholesome utilitarian test, which must be of good service to us by checking the affectations and pedantries into which it may be feared that such a society as the S.P.E. would conceivably lapse. Their co-operation is altogether desirable, and we believe attainable if it be not from the first assured.

R.B.

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English Homophones, by Robert Bridges

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