Kitabı oxu: «English in Anatomy»

© Светлана Станевич, 2025

ISBN 978-5-0068-1797-5

Создано в интеллектуальной издательской системе Ridero

ENGLISH IN ANATOMY
Учебное пособие по английскому языку для студентов медицинских вузов

Предисловие

Пособие предназначено для развития навыков чтения и говорения студентов медицинских вузов в области нормальной анатомии, или морфологии человека. Для аналитического чтения с последующим обсуждением предложен ряд тем, связанных с некоторыми основными системами жизнедеятельности человека, которые рассматриваются в анатомическом и, отчасти, физиологическом аспектах. Дополнительная цель пособия – подчеркнуть роль латинского языка в формировании подъязыка анатомии. Для этого в текстах термины, заимствованные из латинского языка, получили отдельное объяснение, связанное с латинской грамматикой, после текстов даны специальные упражнения, позволяющие сопоставить латинские термины и их английские аналоги. Важной задачей автор считает умение развивать поставленную тему в обсуждении с использованием дополнительных источников информации, для этого составлены специальные вопросы для развития под подзаголовком Something to Think about, некоторые из которых имеют подсказки Clues. Наконец, в некоторых главах пособия обучающиеся найдут терминоэлементы греческого происхождения Combining Forms, задания обобщающего характера Review и, в конце пособия, англо-русский терминологический словарь Vocabulary с отдельным списком наиболее употребительных глаголов в текстах по анатомии. В пособии есть два приложения для работы с грамматическими темами Ing-forms и Infinitive. Пособие может использоваться как для аудиторной работы под руководством преподавателя, так и для самостоятельной работы.

Chapter 1. Terms Pertaining to the Body as a Whole

Text 1. The Cell

The cell is the fundamental unit of every living thing. Cells are everywhere in the human body – every tissue, every organ, is made up of these individual units.

All cells are similar in that they contain a gelatinous substance composed of water, protein, sugar, acids, fats, and minerals. This substance is called protoplasm.

Cell membrane surrounds and protects the internal environment of the cell, determining what passes in and out of the cell.

Nucleus is the controlling structure of the cell. It controls the way a cell reproduces, and contains genetic material which determines the functioning and structure of the cell. All the material within the nucleus is called nucleoplasm or karyoplasm.

NB! Words of Latin origin in -us commonly form their plural by dropping the -us and adding -i. Thus, nucleus becomes nuclei.

Chromosomes are 23 pairs of thin strands of genetic material (DNA) located within the nucleus of a cell. These 23 pairs of chromosomes contain regions known as genes which determine our hereditary makeup. The DNA within the chromosomes regulates the activities of each cell by guiding the formation of another substance, called RNA, which can leave the cell nucleus, enter the cytoplasm, and direct the activities of the cell.

Chromosomes can be classified as to size, arrangement, and number. This classification is called a karyotype. Karyotyping of chromosomes is useful in determining whether chromosomes are normal in number and structure.

Cytoplasm is the protoplasmic material outside the nucleus. It carries on the work of the cell. The cytoplasm contains:

Mitochondria – small bodies which carry on the production of energy in the cell by burning food in the presence of oxygen. This process is called catabolism. During catabolism complex structures are broken down into simpler substances and energy is released.

Endoplasmic reticulum – a series of canals within the cell. Some canals contain small bodies called ribosomes which help make substances for the cell. This building-up process is called anabolism. Together the processes of catabolism and anabolism constitute the total metabolism of the cell.

Cells are different, or specialized, throughout the body to carry out their individual functions.

Combining Forms

ana- – up

bol- – to cast or throw

cata- – down

cyto- – cell

endo- – inside

karyo- – nucleus

meta- – transfer, transition

– plasma – formation; contents

– some – body

Tasks

1. Build medical terms using combining forms:

process of food breakdown to produce energy

contents of the cell

2. Answer the questions:

1. What is the endoplasmic reticulum?

2. Describe the location of chromosomes.

3. Describe the function of chromosomes.

4. What are substances in the cytoplasm of the cell which produce energy by chemically burning food in the presence of oxygen?

5. What structure contains the hereditary material (DNA) of the cell?

6. What term is used to name building-up, or synthesizing, process in the cell.

7. What term is used to name breaking-down, or destruction, process in the cell.

8. What are structures in cytoplasm of cell which are the site of protein synthesis?

9. How do we call the network of canals in cell?

10. What is the name for total of building-up and breaking-down processes in cell?

3. Read the description of different cells and find out what they are. Choose the correct answer from the given ones: skin cell, nerve cell, muscle cell, fat cell

– this cell is long and slender and contains fibers which aid in contracting and relaxing;

– this cell may be square and flat to provide protection;

– this cell may be quite long and have various extensions which aid it in its job of carrying impulses;

– this cell contains large, empty spaces for storage

Text 2. Tissues

A tissue is a group of similar cells working together to do a specific job.

Epithelial tissue is located in glands, skin, the digestive tract, and the urinary tract. It is necessary for protection, lining tubes, and secretion.

Connective tissue can be fat (also called adipose tissue), cartilage, bone, or blood.

Nerve tissue conducts impulses all over the body.

Muscle tissue is found in parts of the body where movement is voluntary (arms, legs, etc.), and in other places where movement is not under conscious control (heart, digestive system).

Combining Forms

histo- – tissue

– logist – one who specializes in any study

– logy – process of study

Tasks

1. Build medical terms using combining forms:

process of study of tissues

a scientist who specializes in the study of tissues

2. Answer the questions:

– What is adipose tissue?

– What is epithelial tissue?

Text 3. Organs and Systems

Organs are structures composed of several kinds of tissue. For example, the stomach is composed of muscle tissue, nerve tissue, and glandular epithelial tissue. The medical term for internal organs is viscera. Systems are groups of organs working together to perform complex functions.

Tasks

1. Find out the singular number for the word «viscera» taking into account its Latin origin.

2. Examine lists of the body organs and find out the corresponding name of the body system which they belong to: nervous, urinary, digestive, endocrine

– mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas;

– kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

– thyroid gland, pituitary gland, sex glands, adrenal glands, islets of Langerhans, parathyroid glands, pineal gland, thymus

– brain, spinal cord, nerves

Text 4. Positional and Directional Terms

Afferent – conducting toward a structure.

Efferent – conducting away from a structure.

Anterior (ventral) – in front of the body. Ventral and anterior mean the same position in the human.

Posterior (dorsal) – back of the body. Dorsal means the same position as posterior.

Central – pertaining to the center.

Deep – away from the surface.

Superficial – near the surface.

Distal – away from the beginning of a structure.

Proximal – pertaining to the beginning of a structure.

Inferior (caudal) – away from the head, situated below another structure.

Superior (cephalic) – pertaining to the head, situated above another structure.

Lateral – pertaining to the side.

Medial – pertaining to the middle.

Tasks

1. Fill the blanks with appropriate positional and directional terms:

– Arteries are… blood vessels since they take blood away from the heart.

– The abdomen is located… to the spinal cord.

– The heart is located in the… portion of the thoracic cavity.

– Veins are called… vessels since they take blood toward the heart.

– The… lobes of the brain are in the back of the head and are called the occipital lobes.

– At the… end, the femur joins with the patella.

– The… end of the femur joins with the pelvic bone.

– The wound was a… one, just penetrating the skin.

– In a… presentation of the fetus, the head comes through the birth canal first.

– The lesion penetrated… into the abdomen, away from the surface of the body.

– The fifth finger lies… to the other fingers.

– The feet are the… parts of the human body.

– The little toes are… to the big toes.

2. Give the opposites of the following terms:

deep; afferent; proximal; ventral; posterior; caudal

Text 5. Planes of the Body

A plane is an imaginary flat surface. The planes of the body are:

– Frontal (coronal) – vertical plane which divides the body or structure into anterior and posterior portions.

– Sagittal – lengthwise vertical plane which divides the body or structure into right and left portions. The midsagittal plane divides the body into right and left halves.

– Transverse – plane running across the body parallel to the ground (horizontal). It divides the body or structure into upper and lower portions.

Answer the questions

– Which plane divides the body into anterior and posterior portions?

– Which plane divides the body into upper and lower portions?

– Which plane divides the body into left and right halves?

Chapter 2. Digestive System

Text 1. Oral Cavity

The gastrointestinal tract begins with the oral (buccal) cavity, or mouth. The cheeks form the walls of the mouth cavity, while the lips form the opening to this cavity.

NB! noun: cheek – adjective of Latin origin: buccal

The hard palate forms the anterior portion of the roof of the mouth while the muscular soft palate lies posterior to it and separates the mouth from the pharynx (throat).

The tongue extends across the floor of the oral cavity and is attached by muscles to the mandible (lower jaw bone). It moves food during mastication (chewing) and deglutition (swallowing). The tongue is covered with a series of small projections called papillae which contain cells (taste buds).

NB! singular: papilla – plural: papillae [from Latin]

The gums surround the sockets in which the teeth are found. There are 32 permanent teeth, 16 in each jaw bone. There are: 4 incisors; 2 cuspids, or canines; 4 premolars, or bicuspids; 6 molars.

A tooth consists of a crown, which is above the gum, and a root, which is embedded in an alveolus, or tooth socket.

NB! singular: alveolus – plural: alveoli [from Latin]

The outermost protective layer of the crown is called the enamel, the hardest substance in the body. Underneath the enamel is the main bulk of the tooth, called the dentin. Dentin is composed of bony tissue and is covered by a protective layer of cementum. Below the dentin is a soft, vascular layer in the center of the tooth called the pulp. Within the pulp are blood vessels, connective tissue, nerve endings, lymph vessels.

The three pairs of salivary glands are exocrine glands. They produce saliva, fluid which contains digestive enzymes to chemically break down starches into sugar.

Text 2. Pharynx

Food passes from the mouth to the pharynx. The pharynx is a muscular tube lined with a mucous membrane. It serves as a passageway for air from the nasal cavity to the larynx (voice box), as well as for food going from the mouth to the esophagus. A flap of tissue called the epiglottis covers the opening to the larynx and prevents food from entering the trachea (windpipe) by closing over the air passageway during swallowing.

Text 3. Esophagus. Stomach

The esophagus is a muscular tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach. It aids in swallowing and moves food along the gastrointestinal tract. Peristalsis is the name of the involuntary, progressive, wavelike contraction of the esophagus and other tubes of the gastrointestinal tract which propel the food through the system. Food passes from the esophagus to the stomach. The stomach is composed of a fundus (upper round part), a body (middle part), and an antrum (lower bulge in the distal part of the stomach). The openings allowing food into and out of the stomach are controlled by rings of muscles called sphincters. The cardiac sphincter relaxes and contracts to move food from the esophagus into the stomach, while the pyloric sphincter allows food to leave the stomach when it has been sufficiently digested. Rugae are the folds in the mucous membrane lining the stomach. The gastric glands which produce enzymes and hydrochloric acid to digest food are located in this gastric mucosa.

NB! From Latin: sing. ruga – plur. rugae